Northeastern California
I.
Northeastern California.
A. Includes Atsugewi, Achomawi (Hokan); Modoc (Penutian).
1. Environment is extremely varied and rugged. Where the Sierra meet the Cascade. There are great tracts which are uninhabitable. Water is abundant but not abundant everywhere. Volcanic outcroppings. Most lands above 3,500 feet.
2. Modoc were lake people and Atsugewi, Achomawi were river people
3. Modoc closely related to Klamath people further north, their languages are mutually intelligible.
B. Tradition is loosely associated with the traditions of the Northwest Coast and of California and the Plateau.
1. Some dependence on salmon (NWC).
2. Individual wealth accumulated through currency and treasure (NWC).
3. Reliance on bark slabs (NWC).
4. Dugout canoes (NWC).
5. Tule rafts (CA, PL).
6. Tule matting (PL).
7. Heavy reliance on seed foods (CA).
8. Some evidence of the Kuksu world renewal cult (CA) feed the earth and harvest big dispell and prevent disaster.
C. Shell-bead strings were the only known currency. All imported, some dentalia strings from Northwest Coast peoples around Vancouver Island, others imported from the California coast from as far South as the Santa Barbara Channel Islands.
1. Dentalia shells and clam-shell disc beads both valued.
a. Among the A & A clam-shell disc beads predominated.
2. Treasure was owned by individuals and valued monetarily. Rich folks loaned poor folks goods. Some grave goods. Everyone encouraged to work hard and get rich.
a. Beads.
b. Furs (mink).
c. Buckskins, properly prepared.
i. Color not related to value as in NWC.
d. Captives taken in raids on southern peoples for sale into slavery in the NWC.
e. Obsidian for the ceremonial blades of the Northwestern Californian mostly came indirectly from the Modoc.
D. The arts were widely practiced.
1. Music and dance.
2. Clothing and adornment.
a. Men’s clothing included an apron-like kilt of buckskin, deer fur aprons, rabbit skin or deerskin robes in winter, tule and grass shoes for winter and buckskin moccasins for the dry months. tattoos, and crownless hats resembling eyeshades.
b. Women’s clothing consisted of a buckskin gown, falling to just above the knee, in winter leggings of tule matting were added, a robe or cloak of woven shredded tule or sagebrush bark, moccasins with a U-shaped tongue inserted at the instep for summer (dry) months and tule and grass shoes for winter, and a basket hat. In particularly hot weather A & A women used Northwest type aprons.
c. Practiced head binding as infants for both sexes to elongate skull.
d. Both men and women wore slight tattoos, a woman’s father or another male relative pierced her ears.
3. Basketry and other textiles, an Achomawi example.
a. Basketry materials included willow and grasses as primary material, but also used pine root, maidenhair fern, redbud bark. Note: Among the Modoc baskets made of Scirpus and Typha, tule and cattail, were never coiled. Used for food gathering, including fishing, and preparation, storage, traps, cradles, gambling trays.
i. Twinned baskets only. Softer appearing than Northwestern CA baskets.
ii Tule dyed for dark shades.
iii. Xerophyllum, a white grass, traditionally used as an external decorative element used for boiling and water baskets only because it stains.
b. Tule used to make mats, seat pads, leggings, weather covers, shoes, caps. Cordage made of tule used for encircling “charmed” antelope during hunts.
c. Dogbane and Indian Hemp, Apocynum, used for cordage for all kinds of nets including men’s net caps. Note: Among the Modoc nettle fibers were used for cordage.
d. Feather work applied to headbands, hair pins.
e. Sticks twinned tightly together to make chest armor.
4. Wood work.
a. Used bark slabs for buildings instead of wooden planks.
i. Modoc used earth lodges consistent with the practice of the Kuksu cult in the winter, but lived in wickiups during the warm months. Frequent use of ramada type buildings.
b. Game pieces.
c. Dugout canoes of fir for Modoc. A & A Dugouts of cedar or pine. Paddles of Cedar (lightweight).
d. Plain mush-paddles and spoons.
e. Bows of Yew, Juniper, or mahogany and arrows of serviceberry, wild rosewood, cane, and willow. Arrows sometimes poisoned.
f. Wooden clappers, flutes.
g. Pipe stems, tool handles. The two-piece pipe was unknown among other western peoples.
5. Horn, bone and shell.
a. Bone fishing-hooks
b. Deer-hoof rattles, bone whistles.
c. Horn Spoons for men
f. Bone awls and scrapers.
g. Pendant shell ornaments, beads.
6. Stone.
a. Stone mortars and pestles. Among the Modoc, some women preferred a two-horned muller and a round metate.
b. Stone points, knives, hammers, and scrapers.
c. Minerals ground for pigment.
d. Grooved stone sinkers.
e. Stone pipes (L-shaped) and discoidal.
7. Hides.
a. Armor of hard elk or bear hide.
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